Aviation Psychology is a specialty in applied psychology that focuses on understanding human behaviour, emotions and mental states as they relate to the operation and control of aviation systems and their influence on the safety and efficiency of flight.
The aim of aviation psychology is to understand and to predict the behaviour of individuals in an aviation environment. Its study is aimed at improving safety, efficiency and comfort.
Practitioners of aviation psychology bring the tools and techniques of psychology to bear in order to describe, predict, understand and influence the aviation community to achieve those aims.
It has long been accepted that human errors are inevitable. The majority of pilot-related errors are considered to be failures of:
This does not mean that the frequency of error cannot be reduced, or that the effects cannot be avoided or mitigated.
flowchart LR A[Pilot Error
Origins] --> B[Interpersonal Skills] A --> C[Communications] A --> D[Decision-Making] A --> E[Leadership] B --> F[Mitigation:
Superior Judgment] C --> F D --> F E --> F F --> G[Safe Flight Outcome]
Workload = the amount of mental effort needed (and expended) to process information. Here we discuss cognitive (mental) workload, as opposed to physical workload. Workload is linked to almost all other areas within cognition and performance, particularly attention, vigilance, fatigue, decision-making and multi-tasking.
Indirect factors also play a role: duration of task, fatigue and level of arousal.
The area that deals with all such activity is called the working memory ('Information Processing').
We receive information from the world around us through our senses: sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste. The "Gestalt laws" formulate basic principles governing how objects are mentally organised and perceived.
flowchart LR S[Sensory Input
Sight / Hearing / Touch /
Smell / Taste] --> D[1. Detection] D --> P[2. Perception] P --> DM[3. Decision Making
Working Memory] DM --> A[4. Action
Response Executed] A --> F[5. Feedback] F -.alters action.-> DM LTM[(Long-Term Memory)] <--> DM STM[(Short-Term Memory)] <--> DM
Once information has been perceived a decision must be made as to the response. Information is continuously entered into and withdrawn from both long-term and short-term memories to assist the decision process. The decision involves input, processing, actions and feedback. The information comes from many sources and requires conscious processing in working memory. A problem at any stage of information processing could affect the outcome.
To carry out multi-tasks we must learn skills through Motor Programmes.
The senses provide stimuli to our brain which has the ability to retain them for a short time, from the time they arrive. We may not have the processing capacity to deal with them all.
The sensory stores for sight and sound are the most important, and knowledge of these is necessary.
The Iconic Memory is the visual sensory store. It only lasts for between 0.5 and 1 second.
70–80 % of the information processed by humans is received through the visual channel.
All senses adapt, either partially or completely, to their stimuli after a period of time.
Perception involves the conversion of the sensory information received into a meaningful structure.
Sensory information that we expect to receive is more easily perceived and integrated when it actually occurs, compared with totally unexpected information.
"We can 'perceive' only that which we can 'conceive', but we perceive only a fraction of the information reaching our senses at any moment."
The process of perception is greatly assisted by our ability to form mental and three-dimensional visual models.
Perception of a situation can differ depending upon the starting point of an observer.
Attention is the process of directing and focusing psychological resources to enhance perception, performance and mental experience. To pay attention to something is to concentrate on it — a stimulus, threat, decision or calculation. Critically, attention is limited; if some attention is being used for one thing, it cannot be used for something else.
The human brain has different reservoirs of resources for information-gathering, information-processing, or the action phase.
The major danger for pilots is the poor management of attention.
Because of two potentially limiting stages in processing information:
Attention is the deliberate devotion of cognitive resources to a specific item. Although attention can move very quickly from item to item, it can only deal with one at a time — so the pilot must consciously prioritize.
With many conversations occurring all around, one conversation can suddenly break through to attention because a word or phrase was particularly meaningful — the classic example is a person hearing their own name mentioned in another conversation that they were not paying attention to.
Vigilance = the capability to be sensitive to potential changes in one's environment, i.e. the capability to reach a level of alertness above a threshold for a certain period of time — rather than the state of alertness itself.
Mainly due to the monotony of the task, tiredness, the need for sleep and a lack of stimulation. It may occur at any moment of the flight. Decrease in sensory perception and sensation of muscular heaviness are indications of low vigilance.
A state of high fatigue is liable to cause phases of drowsiness and hypo-vigilance, which result in a reduction of performance and unconscious phases of micro-sleep.
In its most acute forms, an extremely agitated state of panic or near panic. Characterised by indiscriminate attention to all sorts of minor and major threat cues, as the person frantically searches for means of escaping the anticipated danger.
Lies somewhere between hypo and hyper vigilance.
A state of self-satisfaction with one's own performance coupled with an unawareness of danger, trouble or controversy.
flowchart LR A[Vigilance Spectrum] A --> H[HYPO
Drowsiness, Micro-sleep
Cause: Monotony, Fatigue] A --> O[OPTIMUM
Best Performance] A --> Y[HYPER
Panic, Indiscriminate Attention] H -.->|risk| C[Complacency
Low workload, Automation] Y -.->|risk| R[Regrettable Decisions]
Motor Programmes, or "Skills", are behavioural sub-routines which are learnt by practice and/or repetition and are held within the Long-Term Memory. They can be carried out without conscious thought.
In the initial phase of flight training the pilot is competent enough to fly the aircraft at this stage but does neither have a great deal of confidence in his/her abilities nor in the whole system.
flowchart LR C[a) Cognitive Phase
Conscious effort,
understanding rules] --> AS[b) Associative Phase
Refinement,
fewer errors] AS --> AU[c) Automatic Phase
Subconscious execution,
resources freed for new tasks] AU --> SKILL[Stored as Motor Programme
in Long-Term Memory]
Reflexes occur with little or no involvement of the central nervous system.
There is a delay between detection, stimulus and muscle contraction called reaction time. Reaction time depends on the type of reflex action being used.
| Type | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Unconditioned | Instinctive natural reflexes | Blinking |
| Conditioned | Reflexes that may be learned | Foot-on-rudder on swing |
| Trained | Reflexes that may be increased by repeated practice | Stall recovery inputs |
The startle reflex is a reflex-like event that blinks the eyes and causes a whole-body 'jerk' to occur (similar to that sometimes caused in sleep). The reflex has a relatively basic neural pathway from the sense organ. Many things can cause (or contribute to) a startle reflex:
There is little evidence that a startle reflex alone creates much of a sustained or lasting impact on cognitive functions, although there are some minor and short-lived physiological changes such as raised heart rate.
The main effects of the pure startle reflex on pilots are:
These happen almost immediately and can be quickly dealt with if the cause is found to be non-threatening.
Quantitative Overload — a very high workload can be interpreted as 'Stress'.
The rate of human error during simple and repetitive tasks might be expected to be 1 in 100, but after practice, a rate of 1 in 1,000 could be achieved.
Errors tend to be cumulative. One slip rarely stays isolated — it sets up the next.
Short-term memory enables information to be retained for a short period of time. That information will be lost in 10 to 20 seconds unless it is actively rehearsed and deliberately placed in our long-term memory.
Auditory information is considered easier to retain than visual information as it is easier to rehearse sounds than data in a visual form.
The capacity of our short-term memory is limited. The maximum number of unrelated items which can be maintained in the short-term memory is about 7 ± 2. Once this limit is exceeded one or more of the items are likely to be lost or transposed.
| Method | Description |
|---|---|
| Chunking | Breaking items to be remembered into small pieces and remembering them one at a time. |
| Association | Used to remember spoken lists of items. A wild and bizarre association is imagined and attached to each item on the list. |
"VTBL VTBS RWY01L SQK4732 ALT FL310 HDG270" — 7+ unrelated tokens, near STM limit."VT-BL → VT-BS" (route), "RWY 01L" (departure), "4732" (squawk), "FL310" (level), "HDG 270" (heading) = 5 chunks — comfortably within 7 ± 2.
It is believed that information is stored in the Long-Term Memory for an unlimited time period, although frequently there may be retrieval problems.
| Type | Definition | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Semantic Memory | Stores general knowledge of the world | Knowing that "QNH is altimeter setting" |
| Episodic Memory | Memory of events or 'episodes' in our life | Recalling your first solo flight |
| Procedural Memory | Skills are included within the make-up of the LTM | Executing a coordinated turn |
Learning is an internal process which allows the mental acquisition and retention of data. Types include:
The data is intellectually and cognitively understood and is retained. Observational Learning / Imitation — data from an outside source is replicated. Experience — learning from our mistakes.
Involves motivation, attention, observation, much practice and corrective feedback.
Retention can be increased by:
Motivation is the combination of a person's desire and energy directed at achieving a goal. It is the cause of action.
| Type | Examples |
|---|---|
| Intrinsic | Satisfaction and feelings of achievement |
| Extrinsic | Rewards, punishment, and goal obtainment |
Not all people are motivated by the same thing and over time their motivations might change.
We all have the ability to learn from our experiences and mistakes, and from those of others.
Any response will cause a detectable change which, in turn, will be noted by the senses. The feedback may alter the action being taken.
If an unexpected stimulus occurs, we will be more likely, under pressure, to make an error of commission.
Response to reaction time is the interval between the onset of a given signal and the production of a response to that signal.
Cognition = the mental faculty or process of acquiring knowledge by the use of reasoning, intuition or perception. In aviation, flight puts the pilot into an environment which can distort sense organs, and the changed perspective which is experienced in flight can result in information being presented which is outside the individual's expectations.
A hallucination is actually a false perception characterised by a distortion of real sensory stimuli. (Not a fabrication of stimuli — the stimuli are real, but their perception is distorted.)
Too high or too low a workload can result in degraded performance. Several types of situations may cause mental overload.
Making good decisions is one of the important aspects of piloting an aircraft. Good decisions can help lead to safe, successful flights, whereas bad decisions and even indecision have led to many aircraft accidents. Talk to your instructor and other pilots about different flying situations to obtain advice about what a good decision would be in a given circumstance.
When flying with another pilot, it is possible to increase the chance of a good decision being made by discussing the potential problems beforehand. If as an inexperienced pilot you are flying with someone of more experience and you see him doing something you consider to be dangerous, you should immediately question their course of action.
Risk assessment is based on:
You will have to weigh up the risk and the possible consequences of the risk in order to determine your course of action.
flowchart TD
A[Identify Risk] --> B{Probability
of Occurrence}
A --> C{Impact
if it Occurs}
B --> D[Combine Probability × Impact]
C --> D
D --> E{Acceptable?}
E -- Yes --> F[Proceed with Mitigation]
E -- No --> G[Modify Plan / Don't Fly]
Someone who is too introverted or anxious may not make a good pilot. Examples of desirable characteristics in a pilot are:
As captain of an aircraft, you will need to show good leadership skills.
A good leader displays good situational awareness and accurately assesses his own performance. The following factors can interfere with accurate situational awareness:
Pilots operate in a dynamic and constantly changing environment. A good decision reached a minute ago will not necessarily be the same good decision in two minutes' time.
flowchart LR S1[1. Recognize
& Identify] --> S2[2. Consider
Nature] S2 --> S3[3. Analyze
/ Research] S3 --> S4[4. List Possible
Solutions] S4 --> S5[5. Select Best
Alternative] S5 --> S6[6. Execute
Best Choice] S6 --> S7[7. Follow Up &
Communicate] S7 --> FB[Feedback] FB -.re-evaluate.-> S1
When piloting an aircraft — whether with a passenger, another pilot or an instructor — good verbal communication will help the flight go more smoothly and contribute to flight safety.
Concise and unambiguous communication is essential to the safe conduct of air traffic.
Several things can be done by team leaders to facilitate good teamwork. In the end, it is the team leader who takes the decisions on behalf of the team.
Automation refers to a system or method in which many of the processes of production are automatically performed or controlled by self-operating machines, electronic devices, etc.
Through microprocessor technology, navigational tasks and aircraft system management have been automated, making the flight crew more peripheral to the actual operation of the aircraft. Pilots who at one time had direct authority over all aspects of aircraft control and management have now become responsible for the management of complex hardware and software interfaces.
These technological advances have given rise to new forms of error. Automation is almost always introduced with the expectation of reducing human error and workload, but what frequently happens is that the potential for error is simply relocated. More often than not, automation does not replace people in systems; rather, it places the person in a different, and in many cases, more demanding role.
"The technique of controlling an apparatus, a process or a system by means of electronic and/or mechanical devices that replaces the human organism in the sensing, decision-making and deliberate output."
Nevertheless, a few accidents point to a mismatch between automation and the human element. Studies identified nine categories to focus on:
Human-centred automation should possess these qualities in proper measure:
Personality involves two major factors:
Extroverts are said to be impulsive and sociable; introverts are more withdrawn and cautious.
A low-neuroticism personality is one of an emotionally stable person, whereas a high-neuroticism person will worry and get upset easily.
The way people behave, think and interact with each other generally — as well as what motivates them — will be partly a factor of their national and cultural background. One culture may value subordinates speaking up, whereas another culture may value subordinates who obey their superiors unquestioningly. The latter might perceive a subordinate who points out a concern as being impolite, aggressive or disruptive.
The main area where personality and background culture are important is interpersonal interaction. In terms of competencies, this means communication, leadership and teamwork — crew interactions or interactions with outside agencies such as air traffic control.
The following human characteristics must be taken into account in the design of aviation systems:
Therefore a great deal of attention is required to design the equipment. The most important requirement in the design of both displays and controls is STANDARDIZATION.
This is the study of human measurement. The information is grouped into:
It is not practical to design a cockpit for both the very short and the very tall individual. Those in the central 90 % of size distribution will be catered for. Normally the design of aircraft uses measurements taken from the entire population disregarding both the 5 % lowest and the 5 % highest.
Cockpit space must be designed around a defined position of the pilot's eye. This may be called the Eye Datum, the Design Eye Position or the Reference Eye Point.
| Position | Effect |
|---|---|
| Too high | Poor view of instruments, obstructed high view, good downward view |
| Just right | Optimum view of outside and instruments |
| Too low | Good view of instruments but poor forward and downward view |
Once the design eye position has been set, the size of the cockpit can be established.
It is of the utmost importance that the seating is comfortable and adjustable to the individual pilot's size and shape. Pilots should adjust their seats to establish a comfortable position giving full control movement, with optimum instrument scan and outside visibility. This position should be used for all phases of the flight.
| Information Type | Best Display |
|---|---|
| Purely quantitative information | Digital |
| Qualitative information | Analogue (more easily assessed) |
A standard 'T' layout has the artificial horizon / attitude indicator at the centre with the altimeter, airspeed indicator and direction indicator grouped around it. Digital Display and the Compass. The conventional analogue type of compass card gives a better picture of the aircraft orientation than would a digital readout.
In some instances, both digital information and analogue information can be combined in a single instrument.
| Principle | Description |
|---|---|
| Standardization | Control of location and sense of use from one aircraft to another should be standardized. |
| Frequency of Use | Controls used frequently or for protracted periods should be located so that they do not require the pilot to adopt an awkward or fatiguing position. |
| Sequence of Use | Controls that should normally be used in a given order should be laid out so that the sequence of use is represented in that layout. |
| Importance | Important controls must be located in easily reached and unobstructed positions. |
| Visual/Tactile Dissimilarity | Switches and knobs that control different systems or functions should look and feel different from each other. |
| Symbolism | Controls, if possible, should be designed to contain some reference to their function. |
| Simultaneous Use | Controls which may require simultaneous use should be located to enable this to take place. |
| Warnings | All warnings should be 'attention getting' without being startling. The most conspicuous visual warnings rely on head and gaze orientation. |
Three of the many factors which may influence the well-being of operational personnel are:
Other factors affecting physiological or psychological well-being include: temperature, noise, humidity, light, vibration, workstation design and seat comfort.
The different stress levels generated within individuals by a particular stressor will differ. A moderate level of stress may improve performance. Stress promotes an increase in physical strength rather than promoting mental performance.
In an active, outward-going, highly trained person, too little stimulation or stress arousal will lead to the onset of boredom and even drowsiness. An introspective, under-confident person, if highly aroused, might be unable to function at all — even in circumstances that he is competent to deal with.
Stress factors are cumulative. Stress occurs under various conditions:
Temperature, pressure, humidity, noise, time of day, light and darkness can all be reflected in performance and also in well-being. Heights, enclosed spaces, and a boring or stressful working environment can also influence performance.
Recognising stress, accepting it and developing a coping strategy is essential for stress management. Training and experience help to ward off stress and high levels of arousal. Successful completion of a stressful task will reduce the amount of stress experienced when a similar situation arises in the future.
Pilots suffering from life stress should be aware that this can affect their concentration and performance when at the controls of an aircraft. The descending order in which the factors affect a person:
Death of spouse/child → Divorce → Marital separation → Death of a close family member → Injury / illness → Marriage → Loss of job → Retirement → Pregnancy → Sexual problems → Birth → Change of financial status → Siblings leaving home → Change of eating habits → Change of residence → Loan/debt/mortgage → Vacations → Minor violations of law.
| Life Event | Score |
|---|---|
| Death of a spouse or partner | 100 |
| Divorce | 73 |
| Marital separation | 65 |
| Death of a close family member | 63 |
| Personal injury or illness | 53 |
| Loss of job | 47 |
| Retirement | 45 |
| Pregnancy | 40 |
| Sexual problems | 40 |
| Son or daughter leaving home | 29 |
| Change of residence | 20 |
| Bank loan or credit card debt | 17 |
| Vacation | 13 |
| Minor law violation | 11 |
| Cumulative Score | Interpretation |
|---|---|
| < 60 | Free of life stress |
| 60 – 80 | Normal life stress |
| 80 – 100 | High life stress |
| > 100 | Under serious life stress |
Note: such schemes need to be treated with caution because of wide individual variability.
Stress causes: mental blocks, confusion, channelized attention, resignation, frustration, rage, deterioration in motor coordination, high pitch voice and fast speaking.
Tiredness and fatigue, though related concepts, differ in their long-term physical effect on the body. To deal with normal tiredness it is sufficient to ensure that periods of activity and periods of restful sleep comply with the normal pattern for a person's age and physical condition.
Ordinary tiredness results from normal physical and/or mental exertion over a normal waking period. If a person is tired, a good night's sleep is the only requirement for that person to be fit the following morning.
Arousal is a major aspect of many learning theories and is closely related to other concepts such as anxiety, attention, agitation, stress and motivation.
| Arousal Level | Effect |
|---|---|
| Low Arousal | In cruise, attention can wander; information missed or misinterpreted |
| Optimum Arousal | Central Decision Maker at its most efficient. Lower for difficult/cognitive tasks; higher for tasks requiring endurance and persistence |
| High Arousal (Overload) | Real danger of attention becoming narrowed |
Our bodies are continuously receiving stimuli through our five senses. This information is stored briefly in our sensory memory and, if we perceive it to be important, it is transferred to our short-term memory or Central Decision Maker. Some stimuli are better than others at getting our attention. We can split our attention between several different things by concentrating on them in rapid succession.
The Circadian Circle represents our level of alertness throughout the day. Circadian rhythms are internally generated by a self-sustaining (autonomous) biological clock located in the hypothalamus, which functions as the main control centre for the autonomic nervous system by regulating sleep cycles, body temperature, appetite, etc., and acts as an endocrine gland by producing hormones. It takes into account biological elements such as body temperature, heart rate and blood pressure — which affect our level of alertness during the day.
| Time | Body Event |
|---|---|
| 00:00 | Midnight |
| 02:00 | Deepest sleep |
| 04:30 | Lowest body temperature |
| 06:45 | Sharpest rise in blood pressure |
| 07:30 | Melatonin secretion stops |
| 08:30 | Bowel movement likely |
| 09:00 | Highest testosterone secretion |
| 10:00 | High alertness |
| 12:00 | Noon |
| 14:30 | Best coordination |
| 15:30 | Fastest reaction time |
| 17:00 | Greatest cardiovascular efficiency and muscle strength |
| 18:30 | Highest blood pressure |
| 19:00 | Highest body temperature |
| 21:00 | Melatonin secretion starts |
| 22:30 | Bowel movements suppressed |
As we sleep, our heart rate is lowered and hence our level of alertness is reduced. Blood pressure is also often lowered after mealtimes. Human performance declines at night when the body and mind desire rest.
Melatonin is secreted from the pineal gland principally at night. The hormone is involved in sleep regulation, as well as in a number of other cyclical bodily activities and circadian rhythm in humans.
This circadian rhythm of secretion plays an important role in its hormonal activity. Melatonin is exclusively involved in signalling the 'time of day' and 'time of year' (hence considered to help both clock and calendar functions) to all tissues, and is thus considered to be the body's chronological pacemaker or 'Zeitgeber'.
| Factor | Value / Rule |
|---|---|
| Free-running circadian cycle (no time cues) | ~ 25 hours |
| Cycle with normal time cues | ~ 24 hours |
| Stop-over rule | If stop-over > 24 hours → move to new time as soon as possible |
| Crossing > 3–4 time zones with layover > 24 hours | Keep in swing with rhythm of the departure country for as long as possible; maintain regular living patterns |
| Re-synchronization rate | 1 – 1.5 hours per day |
| Eastbound adaptation | ~ 50 % slower than westbound; 1.5 days per time-zone east |
| Westbound adaptation | ~ 1 day per time-zone |
| Difficulty | Readjustment after a time shift is normally more difficult with flights towards the East |
| Sleep duration | Governed primarily by the point within your circadian rhythm at which you try to sleep |
| Sensorimotor vs intellectual performance | Sensorimotor performance is better in the evening; intellectual performance is better in the morning |
Sleep is basically divided into two components:
| Component | Purpose |
|---|---|
| NREM sleep | Body restoration — repair tissues, build bone and muscle, strengthen immune system |
| REM sleep | Brain restoration — strengthening, refreshing and organizing memory |
NREM sleep is further divided into four stages from lightest to deepest. Both types of sleep are required to recoup physical and mental energy.
| Stage | Description | Duration |
|---|---|---|
| NREM Stage 1 | Transition phase between wakefulness and sleep. Brain activity, eye movement and muscle activity become slower. A person is easily awakened. Waking up in this stage causes a person to feel that he/she has not slept. | 10 minutes each time |
| NREM Stage 2 | Light sleep — the first stage of true sleep. Occupies 50 % of the sleep patterns. Brain activity, eye movement become even slower; cardiac activity decreases. | 10–25 minutes each time |
| NREM Stage 3 | Beginning of deep sleep — slow-wave delta sleep. Brain activity and eye movement approaching zero. If awoken, the person may feel groggy and disoriented for a few minutes. | — |
| NREM Stage 4 | Deep sleep — slow-wave delta sleep. No eye movement or muscle activity. If awoken, the person may feel groggy or disoriented for a few minutes. | — |
As we grow older, the time spent in REM sleep declines from 50 % of our sleep for infants, to 20 % of our sleep for adults.
flowchart LR W[Wakefulness] --> N1[NREM 1
~10 min
Transition] N1 --> N2[NREM 2
10–25 min
50% of sleep] N2 --> N3[NREM 3
Onset Deep Sleep] N3 --> N4[NREM 4
Deep Sleep
No eye/muscle activity] N4 --> R[REM
70–90 min in
Dreams · Brain wave ≈ awake] R -.cycle repeats with more REM each time.-> N2
Mental health problems and disorders among pilots, ATCOs, maintenance and other personnel in aviation may impair performance and therefore be a threat to flight safety.
There may be many reasons why a pilot may be reluctant to discuss mental health problems with the examining physician during the annual medical assessment, including fear of losing his or her licence with both personal and financial costs as a result. This may prevent the pilot from receiving adequate and timely help, and this could potentially make the problems worse and prolong the time for recovery.
Serious mental health disorders (e.g. psychosis) are relatively rare and their onset is difficult to predict. Preventive efforts should be aimed at more common mental health problems such as:
| Topic | Value | Section |
|---|---|---|
| Iconic memory duration | 0.5 – 1 second | 5 |
| Visual channel share of information processing | 70 – 80 % | 5 |
| Short-term memory duration | 10 – 20 seconds | 12 |
| Short-term memory capacity | 7 ± 2 items | 12 |
| Long-term memory capacity | Unlimited (retrieval may fail) | 12 |
| Acceptable workload (crew resources) | ~ 60 % | 11 |
| Human error rate – simple/repetitive | 1 in 100 | 11 |
| Human error rate – after practice | 1 in 1,000 | 11 |
| Startle reflex – motor task recovery | 5 – 10 seconds | 10 |
| Age-related response slowing | 20 – 60 years | 14 |
| Anthropometric design population | Central 90 % (disregard 5% lowest & 5% highest) | 20 |
| Free-running circadian cycle | ~ 25 hours | 23 |
| Cued circadian cycle | ~ 24 hours | 23 |
| Circadian re-sync rate | 1 – 1.5 hours/day | 23 |
| Eastbound adaptation | ~ 1.5 days/time-zone (50% slower than west) | 23 |
| Westbound adaptation | ~ 1 day/time-zone | 23 |
| Stop-over threshold for adjusting to local time | > 24 hours | 23 |
| Lowest body temperature time | 04:30 | 23 |
| Highest body temperature time | 19:00 | 23 |
| Melatonin peak | 02:00 – 04:00 | 23 |
| Melatonin secretion starts | 21:00 | 23 |
| Melatonin secretion stops | 07:30 | 23 |
| NREM Stage 1 duration | 10 minutes | 24 |
| NREM Stage 2 duration / share | 10–25 min / 50 % of sleep | 24 |
| REM onset after sleep start | 70 – 90 minutes | 24 |
| REM cycle duration | 10 min → up to 1 hour | 24 |
| REM share – infant vs adult | 50 % vs 20 % | 24 |
| Post-nap performance loss | Up to 20 minutes | 24 |
| Life stress scoring – free / normal / high / serious | <60 / 60–80 / 80–100 / >100 | 22 |
| Germanwings 9525 — date | 24 March 2015 | 25 |
| Germanwings 9525 — crash distance | 100 km NW of Nice | 25 |
| Germanwings 9525 — casualties | 144 pax + 6 crew | 25 |
| Cockpit restraint | 5-point harness with negative-G strap | 20 |
| Concept | Mnemonic |
|---|---|
| Aviation Psychology aims | D-P-U-I → Describe, Predict, Understand, Influence |
| Information-processing stages | D-P-D-A-F → Detection, Perception, Decision, Action, Feedback |
| Workload drivers | DPST → Difficulty, Parallel, Series, Time |
| Anderson model phases | C-A-A → Cognitive, Associative, Automatic |
| STM expansion tools | "Chunk & Chain" → Chunking + Association |
| Long-term memory types | S-E-P → Semantic, Episodic, Procedural |
| SA-killers | SBF-EPI → Stress, Boredom, Fatigue, Emotional, Poor comm., Interruptions |
| Decision-making seven steps | R-C-A-D-S-E-F → Recognize, Consider, Analyze, Develop, Select, Execute, Follow-up |
| Communication barriers | 4-A + 2-I-R → Aggressiveness, Arrogance, Anti-authoritarian, (im)Pulsiveness, Invulnerability, Resignation |
| Human-centred automation qualities | "A-SPA-CFDIE²" → Accountable, Subordinate, Predictable, Adaptable, Comprehensible, Flexible, Dependable, Informative, Error-resistant, Error-tolerant |
| Control design principles | S-F-S-I-V-S-S-W → Standardization, Frequency, Sequence, Importance, Visual-tactile, Symbolism, Simultaneous, Warnings |
| Stress observables | "P-FlSh-DP-FB" → Perspiration, Flushed Skin, Dilated Pupils, Fast Breathing |
| Sleep stages | 1-2-3-4-R → NREM 1 (transition) → 2 (light, 50%) → 3 (onset deep) → 4 (deep) → REM (dreams) |
| Jet-lag rule | "East is Least, West is Best" → East 50% slower; 1.5 d/zone east vs 1 d/zone west |
| Mental health priority targets | D-A-S → Depression, Anxiety, Substance misuse |
| Term | One-Line Definition |
|---|---|
| Aviation Psychology | Applied psychology focused on human behaviour in aviation systems. |
| Workload | Mental effort needed to process information. |
| Perception | Conversion of sensory information into a meaningful structure. |
| Selective Attention | Continual sampling of inputs to judge relevance. |
| Divided Attention | Time-sharing of central decision channel between tasks. |
| Vigilance | Capability of remaining alert above a threshold for a period. |
| Complacency | Self-satisfaction with one's performance + unawareness of danger. |
| Motor Programme | Behavioural sub-routine learnt by practice and held in LTM. |
| Reaction Time | Delay between detection, stimulus and muscle contraction. |
| Startle Reflex | Reflex-like blink + body jerk to abrupt stimulus. |
| Human Reliability | Individual functioning in the manner he/she is supposed to. |
| Hallucination | False perception characterised by distortion of real sensory stimuli. |
| Cognition | Mental process of acquiring knowledge by reasoning, intuition or perception. |
| Risk Assessment | Probability of risk × Impact if it occurs. |
| Situational Awareness | Accurate appraisal of self, environment and own performance. |
| Automation | Controlling apparatus/process by electronic/mechanical devices replacing the human organism. |
| Anthropometry | Study of human measurement (static, dynamic, contour-surface). |
| Eye Datum | Defined eye position around which the cockpit is designed. |
| Trait Anxiety | Personality trait of high neuroticism (persistent worry). |
| State Anxiety | Transient anxiety present in anyone at any time. |
| Arousal | Person's readiness to respond effectively to a stress factor. |
| Fatigue | Deep tiredness from cumulative stressful lifestyle/environment. |
| Zeitgeber | Body's chronological pacemaker — melatonin signals time of day/year. |
| Sleep Inertia | Transitional state between sleep and wake with impaired performance. |
Risk = Probability of Occurrence × Impact if it Occurs